Although rumoured to hold many prisoners, the Bastille held only seven: four forgers, two noblemen held for "immoral behaviour", and a murder suspect. [66] The result was state-led persecution of "Refractory clergy", many of whom were forced into exile, deported, or executed. [240][241] William Coxe opposed Price's premise that one's country is principles and people, not the State itself. In December 1791, Louis made a speech in the Assembly giving foreign powers a month to disband the migrs or face war, which was greeted with enthusiasm by supporters and suspicion from opponents. 1991. (quoted in, Le systme de la terreur suppose non-seulement [] le pouvoir arbitraire et absolu, mais encore un pouvoir sans fin (quoted in, Censer and Hunt, "How to Read Images" LEF CD-ROM, Aulard in Arthur Tilley, ed. Og left for Saint-Domingue where an uprising against white landowners broke out in October 1790. [164], In 1789, the most populous French colonies were Saint-Domingue (today Haiti), Martinique, Guadeloupe, the le Bourbon (Runion) and the lede la France. Both territories experienced revolutions in 1789. While all wars are political to some degree, this period was remarkable for the emphasis placed on reshaping boundaries and the creation of entirely new European states. [160] Despite high rates of desertion, this was large enough to manage multiple internal and external threats; for comparison, the combined Prussian-Austrian army was less than 90,000. Rapid population growth and the inability to adequately finance government debt resulted in economic depression, unemployment and high food prices. Colonial landowners also gained control of the Colonial Committee of the Assembly from where they exerted a powerful influence against abolition. Other nobles just made do as best they could, working educated jobs. They wrote, "While restoration returned most of their power to the absolute monarchs who had been deposed by Napoleon, only the most recalcitrant ones, such as Ferdinand VII of Spain, went to the trouble of completely reversing the legal innovations brought on by the French. [63], The August decrees abolished tithes, and on 2 November the Assembly confiscated all church property, the value of which was used to back a new paper currency known as assignats. [43] The breakdown of law and order and frequent attacks on aristocratic property led much of the nobility to flee abroad. A new page in the history of France was being written. This meant that although wages increased by 22% between 1770 and 1790, food prices rose by 65%,[7] which many blamed on government failure to prevent profiteering. The French Revolution literally redefined the word "revolution." After 1789, it meant the overthrow of a social and political order, and its replacement by something new. The Paris militia, formed on 13 July, adopted a blue and red cockade. [10] One historian concludes "neither the level of French state debt in 1788, or its previous history, can be considered an explanation for the outbreak of revolution in 1789". [32] Abb Sieys, a political theorist and priest elected to the Third Estate, argued it should take precedence over the other two as it represented 95% of the population. This significantly reduced the yield from those that were approved and as a result, France struggled to service its debt despite being larger and wealthier than Britain. The French Revolution (French: Rvolution franaise [evlysj fsz]) was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in November 1799. [40] In French culture, some see its fall as the start of the Revolution. Between 1789 and 1793, the annual deficit increased from 10% to 64% of gross national product, while annual inflation reached 3,500% after a poor harvest in 1794 and the removal of price controls. It acquired its nickname after being sung in Paris by volunteers from Marseille marching on the capital. This resulted in aggressive and opportunistic policies, leading to the War of the Second Coalition in November 1798. [36], In an attempt to prevent the Assembly from convening, Louis XVI ordered the Salle des tats closed down, claiming it needed to be prepared for a royal speech. [96] The next few months were taken up with the trial of Citoyen Louis Capet, formerly Louis XVI. They were tolerated by officials because they had widespread support and were a link between elite male physicians and distrustful peasants who needed help. From this moment we may consider France as a free country, the King a very limited monarch, and the nobility as reduced to a level with the rest of the nation. The French Revolution Though the queen had supported Jacques Necker 's return to power at the end of August 1788 and had approved of the concession of double representation to the Third Estate, her unpopularity was at its height when the Estates-General convened at Versailles in May 1789. [165], In February 1788, the Socit des Amis des Noirs (Society of the Friends of Blacks) was formed in France with the aim of abolishing slavery in the empire. On 20 June, the Assembly met in a tennis court outside Versailles and swore not to disperse until a new constitution had been agreed. Food shortages arising from a poor 1794 harvest were exacerbated in Northern France by the need to supply the army in Flanders, while the winter was the worst since 1709. France permanently became a society of equals under the law. [92] The former Brissotins now split into moderate Girondins led by Brissot, and radical Montagnards, headed by Maximilien Robespierre, Georges Danton and Jean-Paul Marat. [117], The Law of 22 Prairial (10 June) denied "enemies of the people" the right to defend themselves. [101] The Girondins made a fatal political error by indicting Marat before the Revolutionary Tribunal for allegedly directing the September massacres; he was quickly acquitted, further isolating the Girondins from the sans-culottes. Brown and Timothy Tackett, eds. [190], The Liberty cap, also known as the Phrygian cap, or pileus, is a brimless, felt cap that is conical in shape with the tip pulled forward. Black and coloured generals were effectively in control of large areas of Guadeloupe and Saint-Domingue, including Toussaint Louverture in the north of Saint-Domingue, and Andr Rigaud in the south. The 1793 Constitution was suspended indefinitely in October. The same percentage were broadly centrist or unaffiliated, along with two Directors, tienne-Franois Letourneur and Lazare Carnot. [41], Alarmed by the prospect of losing control of the capital, Louis appointed the Marquis de Lafayette commander of the National Guard, with Jean-Sylvain Bailly as head of a new administrative structure known as the Commune. These victories led to the collapse of the anti-French coalition; Prussia made peace in April 1795, followed soon after by Spain, leaving Britain and Austria as the only major powers still in the war. With the press reliant on reprinting articles from British newspapers, local opinion followed them in being generally positive on the aims and objectives of the revolutionaries. Led by Bertrand Barre, Pierre Joseph Cambon and Lazare Carnot, as before this central faction acted as a swing vote. [181] By 1793 the radicals were most active but initially the royalists flooded the country with their publication the "L'Ami du Roi[fr]" (Friends of the King) until they were suppressed. To change the laws, the king called a representative body known as the Estates General in 1788. Without a majority in the legislature, the Directors relied on the army to enforcing decrees and extract revenue from conquered territories. On 25 September 1792, Lasource, of Brissot's party, told the convention: "I fear the despotism of Paris, and I do not want those who dispose there of the opinion of the men they mislead to dominate the national convention and the whole France. They ransacked the palace, killing several guards. Britain led and funded the series of coalitions that fought France from 1793 to 1815, and then restored the Bourbons. Meanwhile, the men who controlled the Jacobins rejected the Revolutionary Republican Women as dangerous rabble-rousers. [213] Its impact on French nationalism was profound, while also stimulating nationalist movements throughout Europe. They also demanded vigorous price controls to keep bread the major food of the poor people from becoming too expensive. On this basis, a new committee convened to finalise its terms; the most controversial element was the distinction between 'active citizens' who held political rights, defined as French males over the age of 25, who paid direct taxes equal to three days' labour, and 'passive citizens', who were restricted to 'civil rights'. [116] To retain the loyalty of the remaining Hbertists, Danton was arrested and executed on 5 April with Camille Desmoulins, after a show trial that arguably did more damage to Robespierre than any other act in this period. The French Revolution swept away the monarch and killed their king and queen; the Terror which followed the twisting of the revolutionary ideals was in no sense an improvement. Nominated to the Directory, his first action was removing Barras, using a coalition that included Talleyrand and former Jacobin Lucien Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother and president of the Council of 500. The first concerned migrs; between October and November, the Assembly approved measures confiscating their property and threatening them with the death penalty. Washington proclaimed neutrality instead. [139], Removal of price controls and a collapse in the value of the assignat led to inflation and soaring food prices. September 20-21, 1792 A new assembly, the National Convention, meets, abolishes the monarchy, and establishes a republic. In economics, therefore, the nobility declined while middle-class Belgian entrepreneurs flourished because of their inclusion in a large market, paving the way for Belgium's leadership role after 1815 in the Industrial Revolution on the Continent. When Robespierre attempted to speak, his voice failed, one deputy crying "The blood of Danton chokes him! As internal and external threats to the Republic increased, the position worsened; dealing with this by printing assignats led to inflation and higher prices. [45] Over 25% of French farmland was subject to feudal dues, which provided most of the income for large landowners; these were now cancelled, along with tithes due to the church. The Concordat was a compromise that restored some of the Church's traditional roles but not its power, lands or monasteries; the clergy became public officials controlled by Paris, not Rome, while Protestants and Jews gained equal rights. The radical press described this as a 'gluttonous orgy', and claimed the tricolor cockade had been abused, while the Assembly viewed their arrival as an attempt to intimidate them. It wasn't initiated by a rising capitalist bourgeoisie and ended in a victory for conservative property owners, a result which retarded economic development. Above all the antagonism helped stimulate and shape German nationalism. [129], However, the Republic still faced a crisis at home. After a century of royal residency the Versailles legend came to an end, and Paris once again became the centre of the kingdom. [194], At the beginning of the Revolution, women took advantage of events to force their way into the political sphere, swore oaths of loyalty, "solemn declarations of patriotic allegiance, [and] affirmations of the political responsibilities of citizenship." [223] Demand remained strong and after 1800 nuns resumed their work in hospitals and on rural estates. [235], Economic historians Dan Bogart, Mauricio Drelichman, Oscar Gelderblom, and Jean-Laurent Rosenthal described codified law as the French Revolution's "most significant export." This created a large rentier class who lived on the interest, primarily members of the French nobility or commercial classes. Despite their propaganda for freedom, revolutionaries never recognized this right, or even the right to autonomy. The new government enforced new reforms, incorporating the region into France itself. They expressed these demands using pamphlets and clubs such as the Cercle Social, whose largely male members viewed themselves as contemporary feminists. [71], The Assembly continued to develop new institutions; in September 1790, the regional Parlements were abolished and their legal functions replaced by a new independent judiciary, with jury trials for criminal cases. [188], Its operation became a popular entertainment that attracted great crowds of spectators. Organised women were permanently shut out of the French Revolution after 30 October 1793. They were paid a wage and gained property rights. Led by Lafayette, the National Guard was ordered to "preserve public order" and responded to a barrage of stones by firing into the crowd, killing between 13 and 50 people. At this point the Jacobins controlled the government; they dissolved the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women, and decreed that all women's clubs and associations were illegal. Pope Pius VI and many French Catholics objected to this since it denied the authority of the Pope over the French Church. [218], The central elements of 1789 were the slogan "Liberty, Equality and Fraternity" and "The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen", which Lefebvre called, "the incarnation of the Revolution as a whole."[219]. The assemblies refused to implement the decree and fighting broke out between the coloured population of Saint-Domingue and white colonists, each side recruiting slaves to their forces. [243], This exchange of ideas has been described as "one of the great political debates in British history". One of the first of these "pamphlets" into print was A Vindication of the Rights of Men by Mary Wollstonecraft (better known for her later treatise, sometimes described as the first feminist text, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman); Wollstonecraft's title was echoed by Thomas Paine's Rights of Man, published a few months later. [123] A middle position suggests violence was not inevitable but the product of a series of complex internal events, exacerbated by war.
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